Behind the Seams: CO₂ Emissions in India’s Fashion Manufacturing

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Behind the Seams: CO₂ Emissions in India’s Fashion Manufacturing

Abstract

The Indian garment industry, a cornerstone of the nation's industrial sector and economy, is also a significant contributor to environmental degradation through greenhouse gas emissions, primarily carbon dioxide (CO₂). This article provides a detailed technical insight into the sources of CO₂ emissions across the various stages of garment manufacturing, elaborates on emission quantification tools and benchmarks, analyzes regulatory and market-driven frameworks, and recommends sustainable practices and technologies for emissions reduction. The aim is to foster awareness and action toward climate-resilient garment production in India.


1. Introduction

India’s garment industry ranks among the top five textile and apparel manufacturing countries globally. It contributes approximately 2% to India's GDP and accounts for 13% of total exports, with thousands of units operating across organized and unorganized sectors. However, the sector’s environmental footprint, particularly its carbon footprint, is under increasing scrutiny.

The Indian garment industry contributes significantly to carbon dioxide emissions due to energy-intensive operations, fossil fuel dependence, outdated machinery, and linear production models. With global buyers imposing strict sustainability norms and the advent of carbon pricing mechanisms such as the EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), Indian manufacturers are now required to measure and mitigate their emissions effectively.

2. Primary Sources of CO₂ Emissions in Garment Manufacturing

2.1 Raw Material Production

  • Cotton is the most widely used fiber in India, but its cultivation involves diesel-powered farm machinery, synthetic fertilizers, and irrigation pumps, contributing to both direct and indirect CO₂ emissions.

  • Synthetic fibers such as polyester and nylon are derived from fossil fuels. Their manufacturing emits large amounts of CO₂ due to chemical processing, polymerization, and extrusion.

  • Blended fibers (e.g., poly-cotton) combine emissions from both plant-based and petrochemical sources.

2.2 Yarn and Fabric Manufacturing

  • Spinning and weaving processes consume substantial electricity, especially in ring spinning and power loom operations.

  • Most electricity in India is generated from coal-based thermal power plants, leading to high Scope 2 emissions.

  • In decentralized clusters, diesel generators are commonly used during power cuts, significantly increasing direct CO₂ emissions.

2.3 Wet Processing (Dyeing, Printing, Finishing)

  • This stage is responsible for the highest carbon intensity due to:

    • High-temperature dyeing operations (100–130°C)

    • Steam generation using coal, diesel, or furnace oil-fired boilers

    • Extensive use of water and chemicals requiring thermal drying and washing

  • Steam systems are inefficient in many Indian units, with frequent heat loss and poor condensate recovery.

2.4 Garment Assembly (Cutting, Stitching, Finishing)

  • While comparatively lower in carbon intensity, this stage involves:

    • Electric sewing machines and irons

    • Compressed air systems

    • HVAC systems for worker comfort and machine operation

  • Operational inefficiencies and unregulated energy usage contribute to indirect CO₂ emissions.

2.5 Packaging and Logistics

  • Packaging involves plastic films, hangers, cartons—many derived from fossil fuel-based materials.

  • CO₂ is emitted during:

    • Inbound logistics of raw materials and accessories

    • Outbound logistics to domestic and international buyers

  • Most garments are transported via road or air, both carbon-intensive transport modes in India.

3. Quantifying CO₂ Emissions in Garment Production

3.1 Tools and Methodologies

A. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

  • Evaluates the environmental impact of a product from cradle to grave.

  • Key for identifying carbon hotspots across the supply chain.

B. GHG Protocol

  • Divides emissions into:

    • Scope 1: Direct emissions from factory-owned sources (e.g., fuel combustion)

    • Scope 2: Indirect emissions from purchased electricity or steam

    • Scope 3: Emissions from the broader value chain (e.g., raw materials, transport, retail)

C. ISO 14064 Standards

  • International standards for quantifying and reporting greenhouse gas emissions.

  • Essential for certification and third-party verification.

3.2 Common Emission Factors Used in Indian Context

ActivityEmission FactorReference Source
Grid Electricity0.82 kg CO₂/kWhCentral Electricity Authority, 2023
Diesel Fuel2.68 kg CO₂/litreIPCC 2019 Guidelines
Steam from coal boiler~110 kg CO₂/tonneIndustrial Average
Road freight transport~62 g CO₂/tonne-kmTERI 2022 

4. Emission Benchmarks for Garment Products

Different types of garments have varying carbon footprints, depending on fabric type, processing intensity, and production methods.

Garment TypeEstimated CO₂ Emission per Unit
Cotton T-Shirt2.1 – 2.7 kg CO₂
Polyester Shirt3.0 – 3.5 kg CO₂
Denim Jeans6.5 – 8.5 kg CO₂
Synthetic Knitwear1.5 – 2.0 kg CO₂
Cotton Kurta (India-specific)2.0 – 3.0 kg CO₂

These values may increase by 10–20% depending on dyeing, embellishment, packaging, and air transportation.

5. Regulatory Framework and Market Drivers

5.1 Indian Government Regulations

  • Perform, Achieve, and Trade (PAT) Scheme: Targets reduction in energy intensity among designated consumers.

  • State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs): Mandate cleaner fuel usage and waste heat recovery systems.

  • National Carbon Market (initiated 2023): Allows trade of emission reductions and credits.

5.2 International Buyer Expectations

  • Global brands demand Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP) reporting and carbon neutrality roadmaps.

  • EU CBAM (Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism) requires carbon accounting for imported goods.

  • OEKO-TEX® STeP, GOTS, ZDHC, and similar certifications now include carbon-related modules.

6. Strategies for Reducing CO₂ Emissions in Garment Manufacturing

6.1 Renewable Energy Adoption

  • Installing solar photovoltaic (PV) systems on factory rooftops.

  • Replacing fossil fuel boilers with biomass or solar thermal systems.

  • Using green power purchase agreements (PPA) from renewable energy suppliers.

6.2 Energy Efficiency Enhancements

  • Upgrading to energy-efficient motors, variable frequency drives (VFDs), and servo motors in sewing machines.

  • Installing heat recovery units in dyeing and finishing sections.

  • Using low-liquor ratio dyeing machines and insulated steam lines.

6.3 Material and Chemical Innovations

  • Promoting organic cotton, recycled polyester (rPET), and bamboo fibers.

  • Using natural dyes, enzymatic finishes, and low-temperature curing resins.

  • Employing waterless dyeing and digital printing technologies.

6.4 Digital Transformation

  • 3D virtual sampling and digital prototyping reduce the need for physical samples and transport.

  • AI-driven fabric cutting minimizes waste and improves yield.

  • Energy monitoring systems provide real-time feedback on electricity and fuel consumption.

6.5 Circular Economy and Waste Utilization

  • Adopting zero-waste pattern cutting methods.

  • Upcycling textile waste and post-consumer garments into new products.

  • Implementing take-back and repair programs under extended producer responsibility (EPR).

7. Challenges and Barriers

Despite increasing awareness, several barriers hinder carbon reduction in the Indian garment industry:

  • High initial investment in renewable and efficient technologies

  • Limited access to green finance for MSMEs

  • Knowledge gaps in carbon accounting and reporting

  • Inconsistent power supply affecting renewable integration

  • Lack of enforcement of environmental regulations in unorganized sectors

8. Future Outlook and Recommendations

To enable a low-carbon transition in the garment sector, the following actions are recommended:

  • Capacity-building programs on carbon accounting for factory managers and engineers

  • Mandatory carbon footprint disclosures for large units and exporters

  • Incentivization of green technologies through tax benefits and subsidies

  • Development of an Indian Apparel Carbon Index for product benchmarking

  • Collaboration between industry, academia, and policy-makers for R&D in low-emission technologies

9. Conclusion

The Indian garment industry is at a pivotal stage in its sustainability journey. Reducing CO₂ emissions is not just an environmental imperative but also a market-driven necessity. By embracing renewable energy, efficient technologies, and sustainable materials, manufacturers can reduce their carbon intensity while maintaining global competitiveness. A collaborative approach involving policy reform, capacity development, and technological innovation will be essential to achieving carbon-neutral garment production in India.

10. References

  1. Bureau of Energy Efficiency. (2021). Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) Scheme: Annual Report 2020-21. Ministry of Power, Government of India.

  2. Central Electricity Authority. (2023). CO₂ Baseline Database for the Indian Power Sector (Version 19). Ministry of Power, Government of India.

  3. Confederation of Indian Industry. (2022). Sustainable Textiles for India: The Road Ahead. CII Green Business Centre.

  4. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2019). 2019 Refinement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories.

  5. TERI. (2022). Carbon Footprint of the Indian Apparel Industry: Assessment and Reduction Strategies. The Energy and Resources Institute.

  6. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. (2021). Sectoral Guidelines for Decarbonizing Textiles and Apparel.
    Retrieved from https://unfccc.int/

  7. European Commission. (2023). EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM): Frequently Asked Questions.

  8. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. (2023). National Carbon Market Framework for India. Government of India.
    Retrieved from https://moef.gov.in/

  9. International Energy Agency. (2022). India Energy Outlook 2022. IEA Publications.

  10. GHG Protocol. (2015). Corporate Standard: A Corporate Accounting and Reporting Standard (Revised Edition). World Resources Institute & World Business Council for Sustainable Development.

  11. ISO. (2018). ISO 14064-1:2018: Greenhouse Gases – Part 1: Specification with Guidance at the Organization Level for Quantification and Reporting of Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Removals. International Organization for Standardization.

  12. Ellen MacArthur Foundation. (2021). Circular Business Models in the Apparel Industry.

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